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Chap 216 Spinal Cord Injury
Spinal injury
spinal cord injury
motor vehicle accident : 41%
fall down : 13%
firearm : 9%
recreation : 5%
Pathophysiology
spinal cord injury syndrome
sx : sudden transient distal areflexia, flaccid quadriplegia
-> segmental reflex return, spastic paralysis
Clinical feature
systolic BP 80-100mmHg
skin - warm, pink, dry
adequate urine output
paradoxical bradycardia
autonomic nervous system dysfunction
: paralytic ileus, gastric distension, acute urinary retension,
loss of anal sphinter tone fecal incontinence, priapism
vasoconstrict, vasodilate, shiver or sweat의 inability로 인한 B.T control의 failure
: poikilothermic state
Complete & partial cord syndrome
complete : injured level아래의 모든 cord function의 absence
incomplete(partial) : central cord syndrome
anterior cord syndrome
Brown-sequard syndrome
complete와 incomplete는 치료와 예후에 있어서 엄청난 차이가 있다
complete : continued quadriplegia
incomplete : some degree recovery
Ant. spinal cord
Ⅰ. Introduction
- 조심스럽게 환자를 다루어야만 하며, inadequate immobilization은
spinal cord injury를 더 조장하며 예후를 나쁘게 만든다.
- vertebral column injury가 의심되면 X-ay 상 Fx. 혹은 Fx.-dislocation이라고
확정될 때까지 immobilization시켜야 한다.
- spine immobilization
→ systemic instability management
→ spine management
Ⅱ. History of injury
사고 전의 neurologic condition
사고 기전
사고 직후 paralysis가 있었는지, 혹은 sensory-motor status 가 악화되고 있는지
clavicle 상부 손상이나 두부손상을 입어 의식 불명인 경우에는
cervical spinal column injury가능성을 항상 생각.
Ⅲ. Assessment
A. General
-spinal injury가 의심되는 환자 검사
--> neutral position으로 검사해야 하며 spine movement가 있어서는 안된다.
-환자를 응급실로 운반할 때 head를 spine board에 고정하고
neck를 bolster-splinting하여 척추가 움직이지 않도록 해주고,
X-ray상 vertebral Fx. 아니라고 확인될 때까지
head, neck, chest, pelvis등을 immobilization시킨다.
-의식이 있고 마비가 있는 경우에는
이학적 검사시 pain의 유무에 따라 손상 level을 측정하고,
특히 intra-abdominal injury와 하지손상을 간과할 위험이 있다.
-의식이 없는 환자에서 경추손상을 의심해야 할 임상소견
1. flaccid areflexia
2. diaphrematic breathing
3. ability to flexion, but not extension at the elbow
4. grimaces to pain above, but not below clavicle
5. priapism
B. Vertebral assessment
- local tenderness c/s palpebral deformity, pain, muscle spasm
- occiput에서 sacral까지 전spine을 careful extension
log-roll procedure : 4명 필요
1 - head & neck
1 - force (with pelvis & hip)
1 - leg
1 - procedure를 명령하면서 spine board 제거
- tracheal tenderness or deviation, retropharyngeal hematoma 꼭 check
C. Neurologic assessment of spinal cord injury
- motor strength or weakness
sensory disturbance
reflex change 등을 조심스럽게 검사.
autonomic dysfunction - lack of bladder & rectal control
priapism
- spinal cord tracts
corticospinal tract : motor ( ipsilateral )
spinothalamic tract : sensory ( contralateral )
- pain & temp.
posterior column : proprioception impulse ( ipsilateral )
- position sense & vibration
- complete spinal cord lesion : sensory or motor function - none
incomplete spinal cord lesion : superficial (pin-prick) or deep pain disturbance
local column preservation
sparing of sensation in the sacral dermatome
sensation of high touch 보존
lateral & posterior column 을 통과
D. Neurologic & spinal shock
neurologic shock : hypotension + bradycardia
descending sympathetic 장애
1) vasomotor tone 손실
→ visceral & lower extremity의 vasodilatation ;
intravascular pooling
→ hypotension
2) cardiac sympathetic tone 소실
→ bradycardia
spinal shock
정의 : 척추손상 직후에 오는 neurologic condition으로
spinal cord가 완전히 nonfunction에 빠진 상태
: flaccid & loss of reflexes
수일내지 수주 후에 spinal shock은 사라지고 function이
회복되지 않는 부위에 flaccidity대신 spasticity가 주로 나타난다.
E. Effect on other organ systems
hypoventilation
lower Cx or upper thoracic spinal injury
→ intercostal muscle paralysis
Cx3 - Cx5 spinal
→ diaphragm 마비
→ abdominal breathing & Use of respiratory accessary muscle move.
F. X-ray
injury above the clavicle , HI - lateral Cx-spine check
multiple trauma - T& L spine, lateral Cx-spine
1. Cx spine
skull base, 7Cx vertebrae , T1 vertebrae가 전부 나타나야 한다
skull base - T1 vertebrae 가 visualization되도록
lateral, lateral swimmer's, open mouth odontoid view
-1시간 후에 Cx-spine을 더 관찰할 필요가 있으면
Cx AP & Oblique view check
CT - spinal canal속에 bone fragment 존재 유무 확인
lateral flexion & extension view
- 위험할 수 있으므로 supervision하에 check
2. T & L - spine
AP & Lat view, 필요 하면 oblique check
Ⅳ. Type of spinal injury
A. Fx and Fx-dislocation of the spine
Cx-spine의 X-ray에서 다음 사항 check
a. AP diameter of spinal canal
b. contour and alignment of the vertebrae bodies
c. displacement of bone fragment into spinal canal
d. lineal or communitied Fx of the laminae, pedicles, neural arches
e. soft tissue swelling
(T &/or L - spine injury 가 의심되는 환자, 다음 사항을 check)
f. bilateral symmetry of the pedicles
g. height of disc spaces
h. central alignment of the vertebral bodies
i. shape & contour of the vertebral body
j. alignment of the vertebral bodies (lateral film에서 얻는다.)
1. Cx - spine injuries
mechanism of injury
1. axial loading
2. flexion
3. extension
4. lateral bending
5. distortion
a. Cx1 (atlas) Fx
mechanism : axial loading
blowout of the ring ( = Jafferson Fx )
Dx ; open mouth view
주로 cord injury는 오지 않지만 unstable하므로 semirigid Cx collor
를 착용하고 long spine board에 환자를 immobilization 시켜야 한다
b. Cx 1 rotatory subluxation
Dx : odontoid view
양측 Cx1 의 lateral mass 사이 거리 차이
child에서 많이 본다
torticollis or head rotation 모양 취함
Tx : immobilization in place
c. Cx 2 odontoid dislocation
transverse ligament의 손상
→ odontoid 가 후방 ,즉 spinal 쪽으로 displacement
Dx : Cx-lat view 상 Cx1 의 ant. arch와 odontoid process사이의
공간이 3mm 이상 떨어져 있으면 의심
displacement 일어나도 cord injury거 벌생하지 않을 수 있다.
그러나 이 경우는 excessive motion으로 cord를 transection할 수
있기 때문에 head & neck 같이 immobilization
d. Cx 2 odontoid Fx
3 type
TypeⅠ : Fx above the base of the odontoid ( stable )
TypeⅡ : Fx at the base of the odontoid ( unstable )
TypeⅢ : Fx of the odontoid extending into the vertebral body
Dx : tomogram or CT
Tx : Type Ⅰ & Ⅲ : halovest
Type Ⅱ : surgical intervention ( Cx1 - Cx2 fusion )
e. posterior element Fx of Cx2
hangman's Fx : Cx2 posterior element Fx + Cx2 dislocation
unstable Fx
Tx : halovest
f. Cx3 -Cx7 Fx & Fx-dislocation
mechanism : flexion axial loading,
extension axial loading ,
flexion rotation injury
unstable Fx 기준
1. disruption of the anterior and all of the posterior elements
2. horizontal displacement 3.0mm<
3. 인접한 2개의 vertebra 의 각도가 11‘ 이상
Tx ; 10 - 12 주간 halovest 착용
계속 instability 있으면 post. internal fixation & fusion
g. Facet dislocation
unilateral facet dislocation : lat. Cx-view상 ant.subluxiation 25 %
bilateral facet dislocation : 50 %<
Tx : closed reduction by skeletal traction 시켜 주고,
halovest immobilization for 12 week
( closed reduction 안되면 surgical reduction 시행 )
2. Cx spinal cord injuries
1) tear drop Fx
2) stable compression Fx of the body
3) severe Fx - dislocation
3. T - spine Fx ( T1 - 10 )
mechanism : hyperflexion
→ wedge compression of one or more vertebral body
대부분 stable for rib cage
kyphosis 30'< → internal stabilization 필요
T-spinal canal이 cord에 비해 좁기 때문에 cord injury가 주로 complete
4. T-L spine Fx ( T11 - L1 )
mechanism : hyperflexion
cauda equina syndrome
Ⅴ. Treatment
A. immobilization
neutral position - without rotation or bending if the spinal column
immobilization to spinal board with bolstering device
Cx-spine injury : semirigid collor, backboard, tape strap 등으로
immobilization한후 definitive care facility에 후송
restless, agitated violent Pt는 필요에 따라
sedative or tranquilizer (chloropromazine)등을 주입하여 immobilization 유지
B. IV fluid
- limit to maintenance level
- shock 이 발생한 경우는 먼저 수액 공급후,
계속 혈압이 호전되지 않으면 vasopressor를 조심스럽게 사용한다.
(주의: fluid overload)
C. medication
proper limitation of oral intake
steroid : controversial
spinal injury 초기에 종종 사용하고
incomplete cord injury시 효과 있을 수 있다
D. Transfer
definitive - care facility 에transfer
217. PENETRATING & BLUNT NECK TRAUMA
: concerned c ̄ airway patency, control of hemorrage & stability of osseous structure
not well protected by bone.
(A) ANATOMY
★ NECK TRIANGLE
* Boundary & triangle contents
1. ant.△ : (1) bounded ; SCM, mandible
(2) major vessle ; facial a, carotid a(ICA, ECA), int. jugular v,
thyrocervical trunk
(3) nerve : cervical br of the facial n, glossopharyngial & vagus n
(4) other ; submandibular gl, thyrod gl, thymus(childern)
2. post.△ :(1)bounded ; SCM, trapezius, clavicle
(2)major vessel; ext. jugular v, prox portion of the subclavian a
(3)nerve : dorsal scapular n, thoracic n, spinal accessary n,
brachial n plexus, symp chain ggl.
★ANATOMICAL ZONE
* Divided
: dividing line ; sternal notch, cricoid cartilage, & head of the clavicle
(1) zone Ⅰ: -below the cricoid cartilage.
-injury시 high mortality
(∵) involvement of major thoracic structure
(2) zone Ⅱ: -between the mandible & the cricoid
-M/C among penetrating injury area
-but, lower mortality
(∵) one 2에서 hemorrage는 direct pressure에 의해 조절되므로.
-surgical exploration하기 쉽다.
(3) zone Ⅲ: -above the angle of the mandible
★SUMMARIZED THE VARIOUS STRUCTURE
* 소아와 성인의 해부학적 차이점(소아)
@ larynx는 neck에서 더 높이 위치--> mandible과 hyoid bone에 의해
더 잘 protect됨
@ neck structure는 acceleration-deceleration injurier에 대해 more susceptible함
(greater elasticity of the cervical structure)
@ these differances is useful in the management of infants & childeren
@ the general approach to all pt with neck injuries is essentially the same.
(B)TYPES OF INJURY
(1) PENETRATING INJURY
@ majority of injury : VASCULAR
@ present with massive or occult hemorrage
@ vascular injury에대한 2차적인 CNS deficits는 수술전 진단에 중요한 injury임
@ venous injury에 대한 2차적인 air embolism은 rare하나 치명적인 합병증을 초래함.
@ AV-fistular
@ cervical injury
@ pharyngeal & esophageal injuries : frequenty하나, initial presentation에서
뚜렷하지 않다
(2) BLUNT INJURY
@ the force is commonly a direct blow→AIRWAY INJURY
@ injury mechanism
:-steering wheel injury to a restrained driver of a car
-direct blows during sports
-cldtheline-type injuries to drivers of recreational vechicles
(motorcycles, all-terrain vechicles, snowmobiles) & strangulation.
⇒ cause laryngeal edema or Fx resulting in upper airway obstruction
@ laryngotracheal seperation
★Blunt injury to the vasculature & viscera
@avulsion of the carotid a. : after hanging injury
@cerebrovascular infarction : after blunt injury
d/t carotid dissection, formation of intimal flap or plaqe embolization.
@perforation of the pharynx & the esophagus
:-rare
-↑in intraluminal press that occurs during blunt injury.
(C) MAJOR CAUSE OF DEATH
★Neck injury후 조기사망의 3기전
1) CNS injury : occurs at the time of neck injury→not preventable.
2) exsanguination
3) airway compromise
2)3) : recognition되고 appropriate emergency care--> treatable.
(D) RESUSCITATION
(1)AIRWAY
:-1st priority in the management ; airway & control of the cervical spine
-neck : maintained in a neutral position
-respiratory distress : emergency airway management
via endotracheal or nasotracheal intubation.
-not be made to gag or cough : clot과 produce massive bleeding을 제거
1) Intubation
: 만일 maxillofacial injury, profuse emesis, or uncontrolled upper airway bleeding,
endotracheal or nasotracheal intubation으로 기도유지를 할수 없을 때
SURGICAL AIRWAY를 필요로 함.
2) Cricothyrotomy
:-cricothyroid memb region에 hematoma가 있을 때.
-12세 이하의 children에서는 시도하지 않는다.
(∵) cricothyrod space가 tracheostomy tube로 조절하기에 너무 좁고,
기술적으로 어렵기 때문에.
3) Tracheostomy
IX ; complete laryngotracheal seperation
4) Transtracheal (jet) ventilation (PTV)
@procedure; 방사선상 C-spine에 이상이 없거나 surgical airway가 확실할 때
cricothyroid memb속으로 12-14G catheter를 삽입
→connecting oxygen tubing with an interposed Y-connecter
@ CIX
complete upper airway obstruction
(∵)↑intratracheal press from continued inhalation s ̄ adequate exhalation
→result in barotrauma tention pneumothorax & fatal air embolism
(2) BLEEDING
1) Pneumothorax
:-M/C occurs with penetrating injury
-occurs 2ndary to disruption of the airway from blunt trauma
-needle decompression & tube thoracostomy
2) Hemothorax
:subclavian injury, low neck injury →drained.
(3) CIRCULATION
★CONTROL OF EXT Hmr
@direct press or circumferential bandage
@hemostatic clamps를 이용한 시도는 금지!!
(∵)successful vascular repair의 chance를 위태롭게하고,
permanent n. damage를 초래할 수 있다
@avoid infusing fluid through an injured subclavian or inominate v.
(∵)ressucitation fluid may leak into the surrounding tissue
(∴)when inserting pph IV line-vein from a lower extremity or
contralateral upper extremity.
★AIR EMBOLISM
@ potentially fatal cx of central venous injury
@ sudden development of tachycardia, tachypnea, & hypotention
@ machinnery murmer
@ air embolism이 의심되면 즉시 turnened to the Lt lat decubitus position.
(Rt side up) with the bed in Trendelenburg ; minimize this risk
→이러한 maneuver로 V/S의 significant improvement없으면
RV의apex에 pericardiocentesis를 이용해 aspiration으로 air를 remove함
(E) EVALUATION
♠P/EX
(1)Examination of the wound
finger를 이용해 wd edges를 따라 gently,carefully하게 platysma를 봐서
violated하면 early surgical consultation
*Q-tip이나 instrument를 이용해 wd depth determine을 피한다
(∵)↑the chance for sudden severe hmr & air embolism.
(2)P/EX of the neck itself
@search for evidence of significant injury
@look for active bleeding or hematoma, drooling, stridor, tracheal deviation.
특히 laryngeal injury시 정상해부학적 지표를 잃는다.
@palpation for tenderness or crepitence
@assessed for pulse deficits, thrill, or bruit :경부와 상지
(3)Local nature of the injury
1) look carefully for evidence of pneumothorax or hemothorax
2) N/EX; CNS deficit가 direct CNS trauma인지,
carotid or vertebral a injury에 따른 2차적인 결과인지 DDx.
3) spinal cord, brachial plexus or symp chain injury뿐 아니라 spinal accessary,
hypoglossal, vagus & phrenic n involvement도 assess함.
@ vagus & recurrent laryngeal n injuries
-produce dysphonia, but unreliable dx sn.
-vocal cord paralysis ;confirmed by indirect laryngoscopy
@ spinal accessary or hypoglossal n injuries
-produce motor dysfunction of the trapezius & tonge mucosa
@ phrenic n
-confirmed by the X-ray ; elevated hemidiaphragm
@ cervical symp n injury
-dx in the presence of an ipsilateral Horner's syndrome
(ptosis, miosis, anhidrosis)
(4) Vascular injury
: shock, active bleeding, large or expanding hematomas, pulse deficiets,
bruits or n. evidance of cbr infarction을 동반한 환자에서 의심할 수 있다
(5) Injuries to the tracheal & larynx
: dyspnea, stridor, hemoptysis or emphysema of the neck 동반한 환자에서
의심할 수 있다.
(6) Mouth & Pharyx
: examed for mucosal penetration
(7) pharyngeal or Esophageal injuries
:severe neck pain, dysphagia, hematemesis, or subcutaneous emphysema
♠ RADIOLOGIC EVALUATION
@ studies in the pt with cervical injury include C-spine series.
@ body structure뿐 아니라, air in the soft ts or soft ts swelling까지 assess
@ CXR : evaluate : pneumo-homothorax or air in the mediastinum
@ barium or gas trograffin esophagogram ; esophageal injury.
♠INTERVENTIONAL STUDIES
@fiberoptic endoscopy of GIT & the respiratory-tract
: evaluate for Acute injury
@esophagograpy
:보조 수단으로 도움이 됨
@bronchoscopy
:airway injury로 2차적인 Acute respiratory distress pt나
traumatized airway에서는 부종의 증가로 시행하기 어렵다.
♠ ARTERIOGRAPHY
: rare used
♠ CT
@proved to be a valuable adjunct in the evaluation of the airway
after blunt trauma
@serving to delineate the type & degree of injury
@장점 :time consuming
@단점 :-emergency airway management를 필요로 하는
respiratory distress pt에서는 할 수 없다
-glottis와 supporting cartilaginous structure injury는 평가할 수 없다.
@적응증:for stable pt with
-sx of laryngeal injuries (e.g hoarseness, hemoptysis, odynophagia)
-suspicious mechanism of injuries (e.g direct blow to the larynx)
(F) Tx
(1) Tx OF PENETRATING INJURY
:@ 외과문헌상 지속적인 논쟁이 되고있음
@ 저자에 따라
-penetrating the platysma : surgical exploration
-radical approach는 불필요하며, wd는 부수적인 방법으로 evaluation함.
-exploration은 unstable pt or specific Ix이 있는 사람에서 시행
@penetrating injury 는 evaluation하기 어렵고,missed injury의 위험성을 고려
--> platysma를 penetrate시 외과에 의뢰한다.
(2) Tx OF BLUNT INJURY
:@ control of airway
(∵)progression to complete compromise may be rapid
@ intubation에의한 airway control은 definitive하지않고 injury를 악화 시킬 수 있다.
(∵)risk of laryngotracheal seperation
@저자에 따라, laryngotracheal injury시 cricothyrotomy는
CIx이고, emergent trachiostomy는 airway procedure of choice
RECENT COMMENT